The first portion of this chapter will describe the development and
design of the presentation software. The second segment will describe
the incorporation of both the commercially produced software program and
the concept-specific produced software by this author. A description
of the DART software program construction and design will conclude this
chapter.
The objectives of the music fundamentals course were probably similar to those of many music fundamentals courses offered in colleges and universities across the county. The course was intended to give an overview of basic written and aural concepts of music appropriate for non-music major students. Other objectives included the students ability to organize and express their individual attitudes and philosophy on their personal music habits. A more concise description may be found in Appendix A? (Course Syllabus) (note that there are two syllabi; one for the Fall Quarter, and one for the Winter Quarter; as different conditions were used).
The required text was Music First, third edition, by Gary White, published by Brown & Benchmark, 1996. This text was chosen because of similar pedagogical and philosophical approaches shared by this researcher and the author of the Music First textbook. Another reason that this particular text was chosen was due to the fact that the content construction was extremely conducive to the potential use of computer aided software program supplementation. In fact, the text does include a software program designed by Gary White, but was not used because of the following reasons: (1) this investigator wished to frame the study around a software program that is used by a large number of institutions, (2) there were, by this author’s opinion, some design flaws in the packaged software program, (3) the student tracking capabilities of the Practica Musica program were superior to the packaged software program.
The Music First chapter arrangement was as follows: Chapter
One: Rhythm; Chapter Two: Pitch; Chapter Three: Simple Meter; Chapter Four:
Compound Meter; Chapter Five: Black Keys and Accidentals; Chapter Six:
Major Scales and Keys; Chapter Seven: Intervals; Chapter Eight: Minor Scales
and Keys; Chapter Nine: Chords; Chapter Ten: The Harmonic System; and
Chapter Eleven: Introduction to Harmonizing and Composing. (Appendix
B includes a complete listing of the Music First contents).
Classroom Presentation Software
One of the questions on which this study is based concerns the attitude of the student with regard to the use of computer aided instruction as a presentation tool. This study was based upon the premise that the use of presentation tools in the classroom may provide a potential learning advantage for the students. The assumed advantages are: (1) materials could be presented via various media, thus addressing a wide array of learning styles, (2) traditional materials (transparencies, recordings, notation, graphics) as well as specially created content-specific media could be produced and used to augment the lecture/demonstration, (3) use as advanced organizer of concepts to be discussed, (4) an effective organization tool for the teacher (one package with all arranged text, audio, video, graphics, etc.).
The software program was designed as a presentation tool to augment the lecture/demonstration. Lecture materials were designed to be projected to the class via a projection system and sound system connected to the video and audio ports of the computer. For this study, a Macintosh 8600 computer with 64MB of RAM and 4MB of V-RAM were used with an eight-by-ten foot projection screen and appropriate sound system for the 125-seat lecture auditorium.
There are multiple programs a teacher may use to create a presentation tool, the following types of software were used to create this program: (1) authoring tool, (2) digital audio editor, (3) digital video editor, (4) music notation editor, (5) MIDI sequencer, (6) digital graphics editor, (7) CD-ROM writing software.
The (1) authoring tool used in this project was: Director (Macromedia), (2) the digital audio editor used was: Sound Edit-16 (Macromedia), (3) the digital video used was: Premiere (Adobe), (4) the music notation software program used was: Composer’s Mosaic (Mark of the Unicorn), (5) the MIDI sequencer program used was: Performer (Mark of the Unicorn), (6) the digital graphics editor used was: Photoshop (Adobe), and (7) the CD-ROM writing software program used was: Toast (Asante).
The process for creating the final CD-ROM (the final format used) was as follows: (1) design of presentation layout, (2) creation of all needed media, (2a) scanning of all graphics, (2b) creation of all notation to be incorporated into PICT files (file format which can be imported into the final program, (2c) digitization of all needed audio files into two formats: AIFF file and QuickTime file formats 1, (2d) create video and synchronized sound files, (2e) create all additional graphic elements, (2f) create all text to be incorporated, (3) incorporate all media into the Director authoring program, (4) create all needed Lingo 2 code, (5) create stand-alone program, 3 (6) test the final program, (7) transfer all files and programs on the final media 4 (CD-ROM).
The design process was based on the curriculum construction of the Music First textbook. The design was also based upon the presentation strategies and potential advantages of specific media for specific concept presentation. After each concept was analyzed, the appropriate media were constructed. The following were the assumed design considerations: (1) use of advanced organizers for each chapter, (2) use of specific audio examples for each defined concepts, (3) use of MIDI file examples for specific concepts, (4) use of video examples for specific concepts. Appendix-C includes the complete figures of the presentation tool.
The advanced organizer element always consisted of text which arranged the days concepts. The figure below is an example where a varied-color of the text indicated a concept not covered in the Music First textbook (Figure 2.1).
Audio examples were constructed for easy access via a QuickTime audio file.5 The following figure is one example used in the presentation program (Figure 2.2).
The MIDI examples provided the ability to have a large number of high-quality audio examples covering numerous concepts at a fraction of the storage space needs.6 Figure 2.3 is an example of the many MIDI audio examples used in the classroom presentation tool. The example used in Figure 2.3 is the opening segment of The Stars and Stripes Forever by John Philip Sousa performed at the dynamics indicated by the buttons. This allowed a consistent performance of dynamics but was only relative to the volume at which the connected stereo system was set. Care had to be taken by the instructor to have the volume levels set within an appropriate range.
Generally MIDI files are “played-back” via the computer’s connection to an external synthesizer (taking away from the “portability advantage”). Instead, a software program (QuickTime Musical Instruments™) was used, allowing the sounds to be created by internal software loaded on the demonstration computer.7
Video examples were also incorporated into the presentation tool. The video examples were not commercially available movie clips, but were concept-specific files created in a video editor by this author. The following two figures are from a video which helped the student “see” the beat relative to the concept of meter (Figure 2.4 and 2.5). The video visually showed the student what beat was heard in synchronization with the audio. The following chapter will explain the implementation in greater detail.
As previously mentioned, the authoring program used to create the presentation tool was the program Director by Macromedia. There are many fine texts which describe the process of creating Director files, so this paper will not include the description of the process. It is interesting however, that the interface metaphors of the program are very “arts” oriented. For example, the main organizing tool used in the program is called “the score” (Figure 2.6). The element that organized all of the media materials is called “the cast” (Figure 2.7). The computer code window is called “the script” (Figure 2.8). This process however, is still not one which is readily available to the majority of educators. The process of learning the various programs implemented in this project has taken this author approximately eight years of relatively intense study. Particularly difficult is the implementation of the code 8 which is needed for more complex operations within a program.
Figure 2.8 is an example of some of the “English-like” Lingo computer code used in the creation of all of the concept-specific software created by the author of this paper. This code language (Lingo), while being easier to use than many of the traditional computer languages such as C++ and Pascal, it still requires a great deal of study. Given the number of hours needed to implement all of this, relatively few educators are likely to invest, or be able to afford the time needed for such projects.
The final Director file was then made into a “stand alone”
file which is capable of running on any computer (both Macintosh and Window’s
based computers). The program and all supporting files (audio, video,
additional code) were written to a CD-R, 9 at this point,
it was ready to be incorporated as a multimedia presentation tool for each
of the twenty-nine lecture/demonstrations for the Music Fundamentals course.
Incorporated Commercially Produced Software-Practica Musica
As discussed in chapter one, multimedia technology can be used to augment music courses as: (1) a presentation tool, (2) an individualized learning tool, (3) a research tool. The previous section discussed the creation and brief description of the use as a presentation tool. The following segment will discuss the use of Practica Musica by Ars Nova Software Company, an individualized learning tool which is commercially available and implemented by a large number of colleges, universities, and high schools across the nation.
The Practica Musica program was originally written by Jeffrey Evens for a music fundamentals course that he was teaching.10 The purpose of the software was to aid the student with basic music concepts outside of the classroom. In its current format (Practica Musica 3.8), there are seventeen “activities” for the student. They are: pitch matching, pitch reading, rhythm matching, rhythm reading, pitch and rhythm reading, scales and key signatures, interval playing, interval spelling, interval ear training, chord playing, chord spelling, chord ear training, chord progression ear training, pitch dictation, rhythm dictation, pitch and rhythm dictation, and melody writing and listening. Each of the activities has four levels of increasing difficulty.
Each activity has a “mastery” point, so that the student works to achieve a certain number of points per level. The student works on the assigned level, working at a rate comfortable with that student, and continues until that level is “mastered”.
The programs allows for individualized student tracking; so that each student can work on the assigned activity until “mastery” of that level is obtained, once done so, the individual student file (kept by each student on an individual computer disk) shows completion of that level and the amount of time spent by the student. This activity is printed out by the student and handed in as a homework assignment. Figure 2.9 is an example of the student progress file (the filled in areas were the assigned levels for each of the assigned activities for the music fundamentals course investigated in this study.
The activities incorporated into the course used in this study were:
(1) pitch reading, (2) rhythm matching, (3) rhythm reading, (4) pitch and
rhythm reading, (5) scales and key signatures, (6) interval spelling, and
(7) chord spelling. The following section will briefly describe
each of these activities.
Pitch Reading- Practica Musica
Within the pitch reading segment of the program, the student uses
the keyboard interface in the Practica Musica program to identify the given
note. If the student indicates correctly, the computer points to
the next note in question; if the note is missed, the computer indicates
with an aural feedback (a “boing” sound effect) and indicates to the student
that the selection was incorrect and offers to help the student if needed.
This process continues until the given notes (usually about nine to ten
notes at one time) have been attempted. The computer indicates to
the student his or her progress and continues with another group of notes.
This process continues until the student completes the given level, or
quits the activity; in either case, the computer keeps track of the student’s
progress and writes that information to the student’s computer disk.
Figure
2.10 is an example of the interface used in the pitch reading activity
in the Practica Musica program used by the students in this study.
Rhythm Matching- Practica Musica
The rhythm matching activity in the Practica Musica program presents the student with an aural rhythmic example (starting with short examples and expanding with higher levels of difficulty). Each level is arranged by rhythmic component: level one is halves, quarters, and eighth notes, level two is as in level one, but with dotted notes, level three is as level two, but adds syncopation and ties, and level four is as level three, but adds smaller values and compound meter.
When entering the activity, the student hears a short rhythmic excerpt and is asked to repeat what was heard in relation to the beat.11 The student then taps the rhythm on any key of the computer keyboard (the correct notes of the melody are automatically provided by the computer program) (Figure 2.11).
When the student has completed the correct number of beats given in the excerpt, the program provides immediate feedback to the student, indicating if the given response was accurate or inaccurate. If the response was accurate, the student is given points for the correct answer and can then continue on for another example. If the response was inaccurate, then the program indicates the original excerpt and the student’s response (Figure 2.12).
As with each of the activities, an indicator bar (vertical bar on
the left of Figure 2.12 with bell above)
indicates the students total progress in that particular activity.
When the student does complete any given level, the computer gives an aural
feedback (recording of cheers and shouts of “bravo” by an enthusiastic
audience) and indicates to the student that they have mastered that level
of that particular activity.
Rhythm Reading- Practica Musica
The rhythm reading activity of the Practica Musica program is essentially the same as the rhythm matching activity previously described. The emphasis of this activity is based upon the recognition of rhythmic notation versus aural recognition. The student, after choosing the appropriate level of difficulty, begins the activity by seeing a rhythmic excerpt (Figure 2.13) and by hearing a beat provided by the metronome.12 The student then taps (on any computer key) the written notation. Again, the computer supplies the appropriate pitches of the example. When the student has finished tapping the total number of indicated notes, the computer responds indicating the student’s success. If the student tapped the rhythmic notation accurately, the computer indicates to the student their success, and then indicates their total number of points obtained and needed to complete that activity level.
If the student was inaccurate with the tapping of the rhythmic notation, the computer will then indicate to the student their response and will indicate (red circle) where the rhythmic response was inaccurate (Figure 2.14). This is again repeated until the student successfully completes the activity level, or chooses to quit the Practica Musica program. Again, when the student quits the program, the student’s activities are written to the student disk for later use or for printing of the student progress report.
The four levels of difficulty in this activity are the same as those
in rhythm matching: level one is halves, quarters, and eighth
notes, level two is as in level one, but with dotted notes, level three
is as level two, but adds syncopation and ties, and level four is as level
three, but adds smaller values and compound meter.
Pitch and Rhythm Reading- Practica Musica
The pitch and rhythm reading activity includes all the above described activities of rhythm reading by the student, but requires both rhythm reading and pitch recognition. This requires (due to the limitations of using a mouse on the keyboard on the computer screen or by using the computer keyboard) the use of a connected MIDI synthesizer for appropriate use. The Ars Nova company has also produced a one octave keyboard that fits over the top of the computer keyboard allowing the student to use the traditional “piano keyboard” interface. This accessory is very inexpensive and is an affordable alternative to purchasing synthesizers and all connecting hardware.13
The levels of difficulty for this activity are the same as rhythm matching and rhythm reading. As the activity progresses, however, key signatures and accidentals are added to the notation excerpt to be performed by the student (Figure 2.15).
The activity is the same as described in rhythm reading, but also
requires the student to correctly play the rhythmic notation and pitch
notation. As before, the program will indicate the success of the
student’s response. If the response was not exact, the program will
again show the original notation and the student’s response indicating
both rhythmic and pitch errors (Figure 2.16).
Scales and Key Signatures- Practica Musica
The scales and key signature activity again has four levels of difficulty: level one is major, level two is natural minor, level three is other minors and pentatonic, and level four is modes: original and transposed.
The student begins the activity and is asked (via random questions
within that level) to play a given scale and to also include the correct
key signature for that scale (Figure 2.17).
After the student has done so, the computer compares the student’s answer
with the correct response (Figure 2.18).
Again, the student continues until completing the designated points for
that activity level. Total points and time spent by the student are recorded
onto disk.
Interval Spelling- Practica Musica
The interval spelling activity has four levels of difficulty: level one is major seconds, thirds, perfect-fourths, fifths and octaves, level two adds minor- seconds and thirds, level three adds tritones, major-sixths, and minors-sevenths, level four adds minor-sixths, major-sevenths, and ninths and tenths. The same general interface is used by the student. In this activity, however, the enharmonic keyboard is used to allow student’s easy access to multiple spellings of enharmonic notes. The process of this activity is similar to the previously mentioned: the student is asked to spell a particular interval in ascending or descending order (Figure 2.19). After the student responds, the student can choose to hear the interval again (to check answer) or can have the response evaluated.
The program will then evaluate the student’s response and will give
feedback and will indicate the correct response if needed (Figure
2.20). Again, the student’s progress and time spent are recorded
to the student’s disk.
Chord Spelling- Practica Musica
The chord spelling activity has four levels of difficulty: level one is triads in root position, level two is triads with inversions, level three is seventh chords in root position, and level four is inverted seventh chords and augmented-sixth chords.
Students begin the activity by responding to a request to spell a
chord (as determined by the difficulty level) in either root position or
an inversion. After completion of the chord by the student, they
have the option of hearing the chord or by having it evaluated (Figure
2.21). The student then receives feedback with corrections if
needed (Figure 2.22). The process
continue again until the student masters this level with the required number
of correct responses or until the student quits the activity. The
progress and time are then written to the student’s progress disk.
Incorporated Concept-Specific Created Software-Key Signatures
Commercially produced software which can assist students in various classes is becoming more readily available, and is beginning to cover a large percentage of activities covered in those classes. But finding commercially produced software that first covers the specific content that the teacher wishes to enhance, and then covers that material in a manner which matches the pedagogical plans of that teacher, dramatically reduces the chance of finding appropriate software learning enhancements. One possible solution is the creation of the software by the educator for concept-specific tasks. This author created a concept-specific program for assistance to students in learning and practicing major and minor key signatures.
The Key Signatures software program 14 was created by this author with two goals: (1) to enhance learning outside of the classroom, and (2) to aid in the testing and reinforcement of that specific topic. The Key Signatures program was created with the same tools described in relation to the classroom presentation tool. A program such as this does require a greater involvement in computer code work. But as authoring tools become easier to use, it is probable that a larger number of educators will undertake such educational enhancement creations.
The Key Signatures program is essentially a program for learning and review of concepts and for practice of those concepts. The student enters the program and is then given a choice of areas which he or she wishes to cover: (1) key signatures and scales explanation, (2) major key practice, (3) minor key practice, (4) major and minor key practice (Figure 2.23).
The Keys Explanation button brings the student to the portion of the program which helps clarify concepts through definitions and written and aural examples. For example, Figure 2.24 is a single screen shot of a page in the program helping to cover the pentatonic scale (each concept has several “pages” of explanation and examples). Combined on almost every “page” in this section are both written explanations and visual examples (in this case through the use of a keyboard which the student can play with the computer mouse). There are also buttons which can be used by the student which will “play” the scale or other concept (the sound is heard and the keyboard changes in color in synchronization with the sound) (Figure 2.24).
Other tools created for this program included practice tools and review tools. Figure 2.25 shows the use of a practice tool which helps the student practice the order of sharps (other pages include the order of flats) and helped give the student various ways to consider the patterns. The page also included buttons which reinforced the practice of association of number of accidentals with the order of those accidentals in relation to the major keys (other pages included similar tools for practice of minor keys) (Figure 2.25).
The main concept-specific practice tool in this program is the major and minor key signature practice section. This section is designed as a “flash card” like interface. The student can choose to practice major keys alone, or minor keys alone, or both major and minor keys combined. The student could choose to practice in order of sharps or flats, or by choosing a random approach will combined both sharps and flats in random order.
When a “card” would appear on screen, the student would analyze the key signature and type the proper response (i.e., “A” or “ “B flat”) and would next select the “check answer” button. The program then analyzed the student’s response and then gave aural feed back to the student (the software incorporated the “MacinTalk” program allowing the computer to make remarks to the student using the student’s name (taken from the sign-in incorporated at the beginning of the program). Often the comments from the computer were humorous in nature (usually causing the student to smile or laugh) and would also give hints to the student with regard to their answer. The number of correct and incorrect answers were then tracked on the page (visible to the student). The student could also have the program show them the correct answer if they were unsure (this would be tracked in the “answers given” window). This process could continue until the student had mastered these concepts or until the next use by the student on some other occasion (Figure 2.26).
The student also has the choice to print a progress report of completed
activities (Figure 2.27). This
allows this activity to be an assigned project as well as a practice tool
both in and out of a class-lab situation. The progress report would
include the students name (not shown in Figure
2.27) and would indicate the number of minutes spent and the date on
which the activity occurred. Each section (major keys alone, minor
keys alone, major and minor keys combined) would indicate: (1) number correct,
(2) number incorrect, (3) number attempted, (4) number of answers
given to the student, and (5) the total percentage for that section.
Incorporated Concept-Specific
Created Software-Digital Affective Response Technology (DART)
The Digital Affective Response Technology (DART) software was written by this author using the same authoring software as described for the classroom presentation software and the Key Signatures software programs. As with the other programs, this program was written on and for a Macintosh computer, but could be translated to a Windows-based format.
The purpose of writing this software was to allow multiple students to respond to given music selections. Similar work has been done by many researchers using the Continuous Response Digital Interface device (CRDI), but as mentioned previous, the cost of having multiple devices in a lab situation is prohibitive to many colleges and universities. This tool was created to allow similar research to continue as a software package added to the existing computer labs of colleges and universities.
The program opens with a sign-in page, where the student types his or her name (this is later written by the program to the student file) (Figure 2.28).
The student inserts a CD and can then select a track to listen to or adjust the volume (Figure 2.29 and 2.30).
There are a few pages of directions for the student (explaining that a 1 indicates the least enjoyed and 10 being for most enjoyed). The student can then practice clicking the two buttons (which changes the rating above and changes the length of the red indicator bar in real time) and can also use the arrows on the computer keyboard for input. The student then begins by selecting the play button and begins to rate the composition. The program defaults to a rating of five (neutral rating). Ratings from 6-10 six to ten are positive indicators and ratings from four to one are negative indicators. (Figure 2.31 and 2.32).
While the student is listening to the CD selection, the program is keeping track of the student’s rating for each second (the program can be reconfigured to keep track at any rate from 4 samples per second to 1 sample per minute).
When the student has finished rating the composition, two things happen: (1) the student is given a average of the rating that they have given that composition (Figure 2.33), and, (2) a file is written to the folder called “student” in the DART program folder (Figure 2.34).
The file written (in the background, not seen by the student) consists of simple data: (1) the students name, (2) the date, (3) the track number, (4) the evaluation data (Figure 2.35).
Later, the data can be collected from each computer and imported
into any database program or statistics program. For this research
project, the author imported the data into Microsoft’s Excel (with
statistics plug in) and into Abacus’Statview. The data can be analyzed
from these or any other statistical program.
1. The AIFF file format is one that is a standard used to create audio on CD’s. The QuickTime format is one which can be used on both Macintosh and Windows-Based computers and one which can be played directly from the computer’s hard drive or other related storage media.
2. Lingo is the computer language used in the Macromedia Director Authoring program.
3. This stand-alone program (called a projector) will operate on any computer without the needed application program loaded on the user’s computer.
4. This is referred to as “burning a CD-ROM”
5. QuickTime Audio incorporates CD-quality with audio controllable buttons allowing visual location control.
6. A one minute stereo audio example recorded at CD-quality settings (44.1kHz at 16 bits) will take approximately 10.8MB of storage. An exact MIDI file could take approximately 65k of storage space (depending upon the number of voices within the MIDI file) and has the flexibility to also change the instrumentation playing the MIDI file to any instrument available from the MIDI program used.
7. The computer code used to control the MIDI files was the Yamaha MIDXtra “Xtra” which was added to the code used in the Director software authoring program. This program allows for both Macintosh and Windows-based computer use.
8. Lingo is the trademark name of the computer code used in Macromedia’s- Director program.
9. CD-R is a compact disc that can be written to with the use of a CD recording unit (CD-Burner).
10. Phone interview of October 18, 1997.
11. The excerpt is played by the sound selected by the student; either by a connected MIDI synthesizer, built-in guitar, harpsichord, piano, organ, or voice sounds. The beat is heard as a clapping sound, again provided by the Practica Musica program.
12. The metronome can be changed to tempos from 38 to 150 beats per minute. The metronome is defaulted at 64 bpm. The sound of the metronome can also be changed to any sound connected to the program via a MIDI interface or by selecting sounds built into the Practica Musica program.
13. MIDI synthesizers need to be connected to the computer (via the printer or modem port) by a computer/MIDI interface. Some synthesizers today however, have the computer interface built into the synthesizer and eliminates the purchase of this additional hardware.
14. This program is on the CD-ROM attached to
the back of this dissertation (along with the other described software
programs).