Understanding
How We Work in Groups
Small
Group Communication
This
is a summary of the materials we are covering in class. Forgive the odd formatting!
n
Most researchers define a small group as having at least three and no more
than twelve or fifteen members. A group needs to have at least three members,
otherwise it would simply be a dyad. With three members, coalitions can be
formed and some kind of organization is present. Too large of a group (more
than twelve or fifteen members) inhibits the group members' ability to communicate
with everyone else in the group.
n
A group's members
must be able to communicate freely and openly with all of the other members
of the group. Groups will develop norms about discussion and group members
will develop roles which will affect the group's interaction.
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A group must have
a common purpose or goal and they must work together to achieve that goal.
The goal brings the group together and holds it together through conflict
and tension.
Synergy
n
Group synergy refers
to the idea that two heads (or more) are better than one. You may have also
heard the phrase, "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts,"
which also refers to group synergy. Put simply, groups are often capable of
producing higher quality work and better decisions that can an individual
working alone.
Support
and Commitment
n
A group may be more
willing to take on a large project than would an individual. In addition to
its increased ability to perform work, the group can provide encouragement
and support to its members while working on a big project.
Interpersonal
Needs
n
Individuals often
join a group to meet their interpersonal needs. William Schutz has identified
three such needs:
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Inclusion
n
Control
n
Affection.
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
Types
of Small Groups
Groups form
to accomplish some objective. The objective may be to complete some kind of
task or it may be to promote the interpersonal relationships between the group
members. Many groups, however, fulfill both of these functions. Read more
about the various types of groups and then complete the interactive activity
and the quiz at the end of this unit.
Group
Phases
n
Opening – Getting
acquainted time
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Feed-forward – ID
what needs to be done
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Business – Actual
discussion
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Feedback – Reflection
and plan for more!
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Closing – “Leave Taking”
n
Legitimate
n
Referent
n
Reward
n
Coercive
n
Expert
n
Information or Persuasion
n
See page 247…
Small
Group Formats
n
Round Table
n
Panel
n
Symposium
n
Symposium-Forum
Types of Groups
n
Idea-generation
group
n
Remember the rules for brainstorming? Pages.
248
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Personal
Growth Groups (support groups)
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Respect! Confidentiality! Health of the group
is only as healthy as the leaders and members!
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Sometimes consciousness raising groups
More
Types of Groups
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Information-Sharing
n
Educational/Learning Groups
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Focus Groups
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Problem-Solfinv Groups
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Nominal Group Technique
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Delphi Method
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Quality Method
Decision
Making Methods
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Authority
n
Majority Rule – Win-Lose
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Compromise – Lose-Lose
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Consensus – Win-Win
Members
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Roles
n
Task Roles (page 261)
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Group Building and Maintenance Roles
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Individual Roles
n
You can analyze – e.g., use the Interaction Process Analysis.
Rules
to Live By!
n
Be Group/Team Oriented
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Center on Conflict
Issues
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Be Critically Open-Mined
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Ensure Understanding
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BEWARE OF GROUPTHINK!
Leaders
in Small Group Communication
n
Traits Approach
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Functional Approach
n
Transformational Approach
n
Situational Approach
Styles
of Leadership
n
Laissez-Faire Leader
n
Democratic Leader
n
Authoritarian Leader
Functions
of Leadership
n
Pre-discussion
n
Activate Group Agenda
n
Activate Group Interaction
n
Maintain Effective Interaction
n
Empower Group Members
n
Manage Conflict
n
Procedural, Substantive and Affective Conflicts
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Keep Members on Track
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Ensure Member Satisfaction
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Encourage Ongoing Evaluation and Improvement
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Post-discussion Functions
Social
Groups
n
While all groups will
have both social and task dimensions, some groups are predominantly social
in their orientation. Examples of these groups would be families and social
clubs. These groups provide for our safety and solidarity needs and they help
us develop self-esteem.
Work
Groups
n
Work groups function
to complete a particular task. In a work group, the task dimension is emphasized.
The group members pool their expertise to accomplish the task. Examples of
this would be workplaces, campus organizations, or juries. There are several
types of work groups, based on the work of Ivan Steiner3:
Types
of Workgroups:
n
Additive Work Group:
n
Conjunctive Work Group
n
Disjunctive Task:
n
Judgment Task:.
n
Decision-Making Task:
Additive
Work Group
n
All group members
perform the same activity and pool their results at the end. An example of
this would be gathering signatures for a petition drive.
Conjunctive
Work Group:
n
Group members perform
different, but related, tasks that allow for the completion of a goal. Every
group member must complete their task in order for the group task to be completed.
An example of this would be an assembly line, in which each worker performs
tasks that together build a completed car.
Disjunctive
Task Groups:
n
Members meet to determine
the best alternative for a problem or issue. There are two types of disjunctive
tasks:
n
Judgment Task: Group members must choose one correct answer
from all alternatives.
n
Decision-Making Task: Group members must choose the best alternative
from a set of options. There is no one correct answer for a decision-making
group.
Contrived or Emergent Groups
n
Some groups form spontaneously,
such as a group of friends. Other groups are contrived, that is, they are
formed for a specific purpose. Organized clubs, social groups, or committees
are contrived groups.
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
Group
Development
n
Tubbs's Theory
n
Orientation
n
Conflict
n
Consensus
n
Closure
See
page: http://www.abacon.com/commstudies/groups/devgroup.html#tubbs
n
Orientation -- In this stage, group
members get to know each other, they start to talk about the problem, and
they examine the limitations and opportunities of the project.
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Conflict -- Conflict is a necessary part of a group's development. Conflict allows
the group to evaluate ideas and it helps the group avoid conformity and groupthink
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Consensus -- Conflict ends in the consensus stage, when group members compromise,
select ideas, and agree on alternatives.
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Closure-- In this stage, the final result is announced and group members reaffirm
their support of the decision.
Fisher's
Model
n
Orientation
n
Conflict
n
Emergence
n
Reinforcement
n
Orientation -- During the orientation phase, Fisher says group members get to know
each other and they experience primary tension, the awkward feeling people
have before communication rules and expectations are established. Groups should
take time to learn about each other and feel comfortable communicating around
new people.
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Conflict -- The conflict phase is marked by secondary tension, or tension surrounding
the task at hand. Group members will disagree with each other and debate ideas.
Remember that conflict is good, because it helps
the group achieve positive results.
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Emergence -- In the emergence phase, says Fisher, the outcome of the group's
task and its social structure become apparent.
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Reinforcement -- In this stage, group members bolster their final decision by
using supportive verbal and nonverbal communication.
Tuckman's
Model
n
Forming
n
Storming
n
Norming
n
Performing
n
Adjourning
n
Forming -- In the forming stage, group members
learn about each other and the task at hand.
n
Storming -- As group members become more comfortable with each other, they will
engage each other in arguments and vie for status in the group. These activities
mark the storming phase.
n
Norming -- During the norming stage, group members establish implicit or explicit
rules about how they will achieve their goal. They address the types of communication
that will or will not help with the task.
n
Performing -- In the performing stage, groups reach a conclusion and implement
the conclusion.
n
Adjourning -- As the group project ends, the group disbands in the adjournment
phase.
Poole's Small Group Development Theory7
n
Task track -- Marshall Scott Poole and his colleagues have found that group development
is often more complicated than the three previous models indicate. He has
argued that groups jump back and forth between three tracks: task, topic,
and relation. The three tracks can be compared to the intertwined strands
of a rope. The task track concerns the process by which the group accomplishes
its goals.
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Topic track -- The topic track concerns the specific item the group is discussing
at the time.
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Relation track -- The relation track deals with the interpersonal relationships
between the group members. At times, the group may stop its work on the task
and work instead on its relationships. When the group reaches consensus on
all three tracks at once, it can proceed in a more unified manner as the three
previous models illustrate.
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Breakpoints -- Breakpoints occur when a group switches from one track to another.
Shifts in the conversation, adjournment, or postponement are examples of breakpoints.
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
n
http://www.abacon.com/commstudies/groups/devgroupquiz.html
Decision
Making Activity
n
http://www.abacon.com/commstudies/groups/decisionact.html
Dewey’s
Reflective Thinking Model
n
Developed by John Dewey, reflective thinking8 involves a careful, systematic approach
to a problem. Groups who use reflective thinking to make their decisions make
use of a six-step guide called the standard agenda.
Dewey’s
Reflective Thinking Model
n
Problem identification. What is the problem? What is wrong with the current
situation?
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Problem analysis. View the current situation as a balance between restraining
forces and helping forces. What are the forces in play in your group's situation?
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Criteria selection. What are the goals of the final decision?
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Solution generation. Generate as many solutions as possible. Avoid groupthink by listing many solutions.
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Solution evaluation and selection. Measure each solution against the criteria
from step three.
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Solution implementation. Enact the chosen solution.
Brainstorming.
n
When brainstorming, group members are encouraged to generate as many ideas
about a particular topic as they can. For instance, group members may use
brainstorming to generate as many solutions as they can in step four of the
standard agenda. Group members should be encouraged to say anything that comes
to mind when brainstorming. Every idea is written down and judgments about
ideas are saved until later, when the group returns to all of the ideas and
selects those that are most useful.
Nominal
Group Technique
n
A group decision-making tool used when the group must rank order a set
of options. In order to use the nominal group technique, group members work
individually to list all alternatives to a problem or issue. Sometimes, nominal
group technique is used after a brainstorming session is held. Then, the group
facilitator asks each group member to individually rank all of the options
from lowest to highest priority. Finally, the facilitator computes an average
score for each idea. the lowest score is the highest priority for the group.
For
example…
n
If six group members were discussing problems on campus and they assigned
parking the scores of 1,1,2,2,1,1, it would have an average score of 1.3.
Another problem, lack of activities, may have received ranks of 2,2,1,1,2,3.
Its score would be 1.8. Parking would be the most important priority. Nominal
group technique is a good way to have all of the group members voice their
opinions and discussion is not dominated by a few vocal group members.
Decision
Making Methods
n
Consensus: The group members all agree on the final decision through discussion
and debate.
n
Compromise: Through discussion and readjustment of the final plan, group
members come to agreement by giving up some of their demands.
n
Majority Vote: The decision is based on the opinion of the majority of
its members.
n
Decision by Leader: The group gives the final decision to its leader.
n
Arbitration: An external body or person makes a decision for the group.
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
Groupthink
n
Groupthink is a concept
that was identified by Irving Janis9 that refers to faulty decision-making
in a group. Groups experiencing groupthink do not consider all alternatives
and they desire unanimity at the expense of quality decisions.
Conditions For Groupthink
n
Groupthink occurs
when groups are highly cohesive and when they are under considerable pressure
to make a quality decision.
Negative Outcomes of Groupthink
n
Examining few alternatives
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Not being critical
of each other's ideas
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Not examining early
alternatives
n
Not seeking expert
opinion
n
Being highly selective
in gathering information
n
Not having contingency
plans
Symptoms of Groupthink
n
Having an illusion of invulnerability
n
Rationalizing poor decisions
n
Believing in the group's morality
n
Sharing stereotypes which guide the decision
n
Exercising direct pressure on others
n
Not expressing your true feelings
n
Maintaining an illusion of unanimity
n
Using mind guards to protect the group from negative information
Some
solutions include
n
Using a policy-forming group which reports to the larger group
n
Having leaders remain impartial
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Using different policy groups for different tasks
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Dividing into groups and then discuss differences
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Discussing within sub-groups and then report back
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Using outside experts
n
Using a Devil's advocate to question all the group's ideas
n
Holding a "second-chance meeting" to offer one last opportunity
to choose another course of action
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
Leadership
n
Leadership is concerned with control and power in a group. Leadership can
be aimed at either maintaining the interpersonal relationships in the group
or prodding the group to achieve its task. Groups will sometimes have two
leaders: one for the social dimension and one for the task dimension. There
are also three main perspectives on leadership. First, some researchers believe
some people are born with traits that will make them a good leader. A second
perspective is that the group's leader selects an appropriate leadership style
for the given task. A third way of understanding leadership says that to some
degree, leaders are born with traits that make them good leaders, but that
they also learn how to become a leader and use strategies appropriate to a
given situation.
Approaches
to understanding Leadership
n
Leaders are Born
n
One-Best-Style
n
Contextual10
"Good Leaders are Born"
n
This approach says
that people are born with traits that make them effective leaders. The challenge
for the group is to find a person with these traits.
One-Best-Style
n
This approach says that in a given situation, one particular style of leadership
is most effective. There are four main styles:
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Autocratic: Leader uses his or her authority to make decisions.
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Democratic: Authority is shared and all group members help make decisions.
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Laissez-faire: A "hands-off" style in which the leader allows
the group to make its own decisions.
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Abdacratic: No one in the group exercises leadership. This style, says
researchers, leads to group disintegration and is followed by autocratic leadership.
Contextual10
n
This approach says
that leaders are to some degree born with leadership traits, but that the
situation, personalities of other group members, pressures on the group, and
group norms also determine leadership.
Links
n
Leadership Links Center for Creative Leadership http://www.ccl.org/
Non-profit educational institute designed to develop innovative models of
managerial practice. Site includes newsletter and research about leadership.
n
JC Penney Leadership Center http://www.ou.edu/business/jcpenney/
This center, at the University of Oklahoma, promotes leadership in management.
Site contains news and general information about the program.
n
Leadership Studies Journal http://www.Colorado.EDU/SLI/LSJ/
On-line journal of leadership studies.
More
Links on Leadership
n
Student Leadership Institute http://www.colorado.edu/SLI/
Information about the Student Leadership Institute at the University of Colorado.
n
Center for the Advanced Study of Leadership http://academy.umd.edu/
Headquartered at the University of Maryland, this academic institute provides
training and seminars about leadership. The web page also describes grants
available by the center.
n
National Initiative for Leadership and Institutional Effectiveness http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/cep/acce/nilie/
The website of NILIE, at North Carolina State University, offers research
articles and other information about leadership and organizations.
n
Don Clark's Leadership Guide http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leader.html
Starbuck's Coffee Executive Don Clark presents his multiple-chapter guide
to leadership.
Quiz
on what you have learned so far:
Roles
in Groups
n
Every member of a
group plays a certain role within that group.
n
Task Roles: relate
to the task aspect of the group
n
Social Roles: promote
social interaction.
n
Individualistic Roles: self-centered roles that can be destructive
for the group.
Task-Oriented Roles
n
Initiator-contributor: Generates new ideas.
n
Information-seeker: Asks for information about the task.
n
Opinion-seeker: Asks for the input from the group about its values.
n
Information-giver: Offers facts or generalization to the group.
n
Opinion-giver: States his or her beliefs about a group issue.
n
Elaborator: Explains ideas within the group, offers examples to clarify
ideas.
More
Task Roles
n
Coordinator: Shows the relationships between ideas.
n
Orienter: Shifts the direction of the group's discussion.
n
Evaluator-critic: Measures group's actions against some objective standard.
n
Energizer: Stimulates the group to a higher level of activity.
n
Procedural-technician: Performs logistical functions for the group.
n
Recorder: Keeps a record of group actions.
Social
Roles
n
Encourager: Praises the ideas of others.
n
Harmonizer: Mediates differences between group members.
n
Compromiser: Moves group to another position that is favored by all group
members.
n
Gatekeeper/expediter: Keeps communication channels open.
n
Standard Setter: Suggests standards or criteria for the group to achieve.
n
Group observer: Keeps records of group activities and uses this information
to offer feedback to the group.
n
Follower: Goes along with the group and accepts the group's ideas.